The founding and activities of the Pharmacy Division of the Vilnius Medical Society.

The Pharmacy Division of the Vilnius Medical Society was founded in 1819. It was the first and only pharmacy organization in Lithuania until the beginning of the 20th century. At the time of its founding, there were only three other pharmacy organizations in the Russian Empire: the Riga Chemical-Pharmaceutical Society (1803), the Mitau (now Jelgava) Pharmacy Society (1808) and the St. Petersburg Pharmacy Society (1818). The Division did much to improve the practice of pharmacy, enhance pharmaceutical knowledge and education, support and encourage pharmaceutical research, as well as provide a forum for discussion of all matters of interest and concern to the pharmacy profession. Through its publications, rich library and study collections, pharmacists in Vilnius and the Vilnius governorate stayed abreast of all the major developments and discoveries in the medical and pharmaceutical sciences. After the closing of Vilnius University in 1832 and of the Vilnius Medical-Surgical Academy in 1842, the Vilnius Medical Society, and hence its Pharmacy Division, lost its academic base. Pharmaceutical chemistry suffered especially. Pharmacists turned their attention to their practices and business interests. Their interest in the Society waned and their membership dwindled. In the beginning of the 20th century, especially after Lithuania regained its independence in 1918, other organizational opportunities opened up to them.

Bravo Murillo y el Reglamento de estudios de 1852 / Bravo Murillo and the study regulations of 1852

OBJETIVOS: Analizar el extenso Reglamento de estudios de 1852, donde se legisla todo lo relativo a la enseñanza secundaria y universitaria de España, decantándonos por lo legislado para la enseñanza en la Facultades de Farmacia y Medicina. MÉTODO: El desarrollo de este trabajo es fruto de otro mucho más amplio. En general, se han consultado los Archivos Históricos de Madrid y Sevilla, 39 libros, 60 citas de internet, 3 números de Colección legislativa de España, y numerosísimas Gaceta de Madrid de los años comprendidos entre 1845 y 1931; y revisado 5 Boletín Oficial de Estado. RESULTADOS: En el siglo XIX, antes de decretarse el Reglamento de Estudios de 1852, siendo Bravo Murillo Presidente del Gobierno, se aprobaron una serie de Reformas, Proyectos, Planes, Reglamentos, etc., hasta un total de 17. El Reglamento de Estudios de 1852 consta de 10 secciones, 36 títulos, siete capítulos y 420 artículos, donde se legislan sobre el gobierno general de la instrucción pública, los distritos universitarios, el régimen interior y económico, el curso literario y métodos de enseñanza, el profesorado público, los alumnos, con sus derechos y obligaciones y los establecimientos privados, para finalizar hablando del traje académico y las insignias. CONCLUSIONES: El Reglamento de estudios de 1852 significó un paso adelante en la organización de la enseñanza de aquella época y, muy particularmente, de la enseñanza universitaria. En más de 400 artículos se legisla prácticamente todo, desde el Rector, que recobra su poder, hasta los bedeles, pasando por catedráticos, profesorado, alumnos, etc

OBJECTIVES: Analyze the extensive Regulation of studies of 1852, where everything related to secondary and university education in Spain is legislated, choosing the legislated for teaching in the Faculties of Pharmacy and Medicine. METHOD: In general, we have consulted the Historical Archives of Madrid and Seville; 39 books; 60 internet appointments; 3 issues of the "Colección legislativa de España"; and numerous "Gaceta de Madrid" of the years between 1845 and 1931; and revised 5 "Boletín Oficial de Estado". RESULTS: In the 19 th century, before the Regulation of Studies of 1852 was enacted, with Bravo Murillo as President of the Government, a series of Reforms, Projects, Plans, Regulations, etc. were approved, up to a total of 17. The Study Regulations of 1852 consist of 10 sections, 36 titles, seven chapters and 420 articles. The Regulation legislates on the general government of public instruction, the university districts, the internal and economic regime, the literary course and teaching methods, the public teaching staff, the students, with their rights and obligations and the private establishments, the academic dress and the badges. CONCLUSIONS: The Study Regulations of 1852 represented a step forward in the organization of education at that time and, very particularly, in university education. In more than 400 articles almost everything is legislated: the Rector to the bedeles, also professors, lecturers, students, etc

Profissão farmacêutica em São Paulo: prática científica, ensino e gênero, 1895-1917 / Pharmaceutical profession in São Paulo: scientific practice, teaching and gender, 1895-1917

Expõe caminhos, alianças e disputas por meio dos quais farmacêuticos paulistas buscaram criar espaços de fala, atuação e ensino separados da medicinam, a partir de 1895

De la historia antigua de los métodos iodométricos: de Robert Bunsen a Karoly Tham / Ancient history of the iodometric methods: from Robert Bunsen to Karoly Tham

La contribución más importante en el ámbito de la iodometría se debe a Bunsen, quien describe la determinación de una amplia variedad de sustancias oxidantes liberando el yodo a partir del ioduro potasio, y valorándolo con ácido sulfuroso. Bunsen tenía predilección por el trabajo cuantitativo y era un genio en el diseño de la ciencia aplicada aunque no patenta los dispositivos que idea. Da un impulso decisivo a la institucionalización de la farmacia alemana en el siglo XIX, interesándose por el desarrollo de la educación farmacéutica. Heinrich Schwarz tras estudiar en de Halle y pasar por Giessen marcha al laboratorio de Pelouze en París, donde se familiariza con los métodos volumétricos de análisis, trabajando a su regreso a Alemania en este campo. Propone reemplazar el ácido sulfuroso utilizado por Bunsen en las valoraciones con yodo por tiosulfato sódico, lo que supuso un gran avance. Theophile Pelouze, farmacéutico, es fundamental para entender las conexiones con Schwarz y también con Bunsen. El trabajo concluye con la determinación de azúcares propuesta por Arthur Barreswill modificada por Fehling, y con la determinación de la pureza del ioduro de potasio del comercio

The most important contribution in the field of iodometry is due to Bunsen, who describes the determination of a wide variety of oxidizing substances by releasing iodine from iodide potassium, and assessing it with sulphurous acid. Bunsen had a predilection for quantitative work and was a genius in the design of applied science, although he does not patent the devices that idea. It gives a decisive impulse to the institutionalization of the German pharmacy in the 19th century, taking an interest in the development of pharmaceutical education. Heinrich Schwarz after studying in Halle and going through Giessen goes to the Pelouze laboratory in Paris, where he becomes familiar with the volumetric methods of analysis, working on his return to Germany in this field. It proposes to replace the sulphurous acid used by Bunsen in the evaluations with iodine by sodium thiosulphate, which represented a great advance. Theophile Pelouze, pharmacist, is essential to understand the connections with Schwarz and also with Bunsen. The work concludes with the determination of sugars proposed by Arthur Barres will modified by Fehling, and with the determination of the purity of the potassium iodide of the trade

The last apothecary: Eric Knott (1896-1993) and 20th-century pharmacy in Scotland.

Eric Knott was the last Apothecary at the Royal Public Dispensary and the last Principal of the Duncan School of Pharmacy. He linked pre-war apothecary practice to post-war chemist dispensing. This paper tracks his career from the Duncan School of Pharmacy, transfer to Heriot-Watt College in 1936, to the close of the Royal Public Dispensary in 1963, when the premises were transferred to the University of Edinburgh. It draws on unpublished archival material and long unseen collections from National Museums Scotland to explore what Knott's career can tell us about the impact of new legislation and the introduction of the NHS on pharmacy in Scotland.

La aportación húngara a los métodos iodométricos, Karoly Than y Lajos Winkler, la determinación de oxígeno disuelto y el índice de iodo / The Hungarian contribution to iodometric methods, Karoly Than and Winkler Lajos, the determination of dissolved oxygen and the iodo index

Tras el trasfondo de los métodos iodométricos se procede a analizar la vida y la obra de dos grandes científicos húngaros, Than y Winkler, maestro y discípulo, responsables de la introducción de la química científica y de la educación farmacéutica en su país, que se movía en la órbita del imperio austro-húngaro, generando una escuela de excelencia en el ámbito académico. Than contribuye entre otros muchos descubrimientos a la utilización del bi-iodato potásico para la estandarización de tiosulfato de sodio. Winkler pone a punto un método iodométrico de determinación del oxígeno disuelto en aguas, un clásico de la química analítica, todavía en uso hoy día. El uso del dicromato de potasio por Zulkovsky abre la posibilidad a las aplicaciones analíticas de las oxidaciones con dicromato en iodometría. Las determinaciones de ioduro y bromuro y la del índice de yodo, entre otras, hace que la química analítica de los halógenos pueda considerarse una rama distintiva de la ciencia húngara. Schulek, discípulo de Winkler, abre las puertas al desarrollo del análisis y de la industria farmacéutica en Hungría (AU)

Under the background of the iodometric methods we analyze the life and work of two great Hungarian scientists, Than and Winkler, teacher and disciple. They were responsible for the introduction of scientific chemistry and pharmaceutical education in his country, which moved in the orbit of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Both generated a school of excellence in the academic field. Than contributes among many other discoveries to the use of potassium biiodate for the standardization of sodium thiosulfate and Winkler develops an iodometric method for the determination of dissolved oxygen in waters, a classic of chemical analysis, the use of which continues today. The use of potassium dichromate by Zulkovsky opened the possibility to the analytical applications of the oxidations with dichromate in iodometry. The iodide, bromide and iodine index determinations, make the analytical chemistry of halogens a distinctive branch of Hungarian science. Schulek, a disciple of Winkler, opens the door to the development of pharmaceutical analysis and the pharmaceutical industry in Hungary (AU)

Las ordenanzas de Madrid, de boticarios, de 1552 / Ordinances of apothecaries, Madrid, 1552

La institucionalización de la Sanidad en el Reino de Castilla va unida, a partir del último tercio del siglo XV, a la creación del Real Tribunal del Protomedicato, organismo a través del cual el Poder Real va a controlar a las profesiones sanitarias. La jurisdicción y regulación de dicha institución, a partir de 1523, permite solo su actuación en la Corte y a cinco leguas de ella, quedando los demás aspectos derivados de la misma a las justicias locales que ejercerán el control sanitario. Por ello fueron importantes las normas dictadas, siendo las Ordenanzas una significativa manifestación del Poder Local. En el presente trabajo se estudian, y se publican por primera vez, las Ordenanzas de Madrid, de Boticarios, de 1552, la repercusión de ellas derivadas para los boticarios madrileños, y de otras regiones, y fundamentalmente para la salud pública (AU)

The institutionalization of Health in the Kingdom of Castile is linked, from the last quarter of the fifteenth century, to the creation of the Royal Tribunal of the Protomedicato, an institution through which the Royal Power will control the health professions. The jurisdiction and regulation of this institution, from 1523, allows only its action in the Court and five leagues from it, leaving the other aspects derived from it to the local courts that will exercise sanitary control. For that reason, the regulations dictated were important, being the Ordinances a significant manifestation of the Local Power. In the present work the Ordinances of Madrid of Apothecaries (Ordenanzas de Madrid de Boticarios) of 1552 are studied, and published for the first time, the repercussion of them derived for the Madrid apothecaries, and of other regions, and fundamentally for the Public Health (AU)

Early decades of Madras Medical College: Apothecaries.

The Government at Fort St George determined that a school for instructing and training candidates towards the titles of 'apothecary' was necessary to improve medical help to people in the 1830s. This led to the establishment of the medical school in Madras (presently Chennai) in 1835. The school got renamed as the Madras Medical College in 1850. From 1835, the Madras Medical School offered formal training to personnel to be called either 'apothecaries' or 'dressers' under the superintendence of William Mortimer, who was assisted by George Harding in teaching at the school. Apothecary D'Beaux and Dresser P. S. Muthuswami Mudaliar were subordinate assistants. These apothecaries were recruited essentially under the Subordinate Medical Service of Madras, which was established in 1812 and included non-commissioned medical servants. The Madras apothecaries launched the Madras Apothecaries Society in 1864, which aimed at promoting and advancing medical science and knowledge. This society existed until 1871. Formal training of apothecaries ceased in Madras by the later decades of the 19th century, although informal training continued, especially for army cadets and women. Establishment of medical schools in Royapuram (which developed as the Stanley Medical College and Hospital), Tanjavur and Madurai, in the early decades of the 20th century and the 'branch' of Madras Medical College in Calicut during the Second World War changed the complexion of training of medical personnel immensely in pre- 1947 Madras Presidency. The Royapuram and other Medical Schools in Madras trained medical practitioners granting the title 'Licensed Medical Practitioner' (LMP). Whether the apothecary-dresser training at the 'old' Madras Medical College had a role to play in these developments remains to be verified.

Las escrituras de aprendiz de boticario en la villa de Madrid durante los siglos XVI-XVII / Notarial documents of apothecary apprentice in Madrid during the period from the 16th-17th centuries

Los boticarios en Castilla, desde el bajo medioevo en que se produce en Europa la separación legal de la Medicina y la Farmacia, al no existir centros docentes en los que formarse, lo hicieron, prácticamente hasta los primeros años del siglo XIX en que se crean los Reales Colegios de Farmacia, en la botica de un boticario examinado por el Real Tribunal del Protomedicato. Los años de práctica exigibles en la Corte, durante los siglos XVI-XVII, para poder examinarse ante el referido Tribunal y obtener de la licencia administrativa para abrir botica propia o trabajar como oficial en la de un compañero eran, según lo dispuesto, generalmente cuatro. Aunque este dato es creencia generalizada no es menos cierto que si habían sido estudiadas fuentes primarias, no habían sido publicadas, ni tampoco las condiciones exigibles a docente y discente. El hallazgo y análisis de varias escrituras notariales de aprendiz de boticario, de los siglos antedichos, conservadas en el Archivo Histórico de Protocolos de Madrid, que si se conocían no habían sido estudiadas ni publicadas con anterioridad, nos permiten conocer el marco contractual del aprendizaje del oficio y arte de boticario, al menos durante ese periodo

The Apothecaries in Castile, from the Low Middle Ages, in which it took place in Europe the legal separation of the Medicine and the Pharmacy, in the absence of Schools in which formed did, practically until the first years of the nineteenth century in which the Royal Colleges of Pharmacy are created in order to formed apothecaries that in the apothecaries´s drugstores and they were examined by the Royal Court of Protomedicato. The years of practice enforceable in Court, during the period from the sixteen century to seventeen century, to be examined before the Court concerned and obtain administrative license to open own apothecary or work as officer of a companion were, according to the provisions, usually four. Although this fact is widely believed it is not less true that if had been studied primary sources, not had been published, nor the qualifications to teacher and learner. The discovery and analysis of several notarial documents of apprentice apothecary, of the centuries that we are studding, preserved in the Historical Archive of Protocols of Madrid, that if they knew had not been studied or published previously, allow us to meet the contractual framework of learning the craft and art of the apothecary, unless during that period

[Pharmacists in transition. Academy and Pharmacy in Mexico from 1833 to 1865]. / Farmacéuticos en transición. Academia y Farmacia en México de 1833 a 1865.

From the second half of the 19th century, health disciplines went through an institutional and professional restructuring, which progressively altered the guild order that had characterized them to that point. In the case of Pharmacy, this process implied the generation of officially recognized spaces, as the chairs of Pharmacy and Medical Substance, founded during the Establecimiento de Ciencias Médicas (Establishment of Medical Sciences) (1833). In those spaces it was sought to institutionalize knowledge and modern practices related to Pharmacy. In this work we look over the first academic experience of the pharmaceutical community in that new space of instruction, based on the records belonging to the students enrolled in the Establecimiento de Ciencias Médicas from 1833 to 1865, year of the enrollment of the last generation. The information contained in those 163 records displays the way the pharmaceutical field was transformed, after the aforementioned restructuring. The reader will notice the diverse normativity, which regulated the joining of pharmacists to academic life (of which, until then, they were excluded). He will also realize how, among the first students enrolled in the Establecimiento de Ciencias Médicas, said normativity was broke in order to adapt it to the known ways of students and professors. Progressively, the guild instruction would be ousted by the institutional instruction (for example, the years of practice in the drugstores were rejected), so that the guild ways of teaching were changing to turn the pharmacist into an individual of institutional instruction.

Desde la segunda mitad del siglo XIX, las disciplinas de la salud atravesaron por una reestructuración institucional y profesional que progresivamente alteró el orden gremial que las agrupaba. Para el caso de la Farmacia, el proceso implicó la generación de espacios oficialmente reconocidos, como las propias cátedras de Farmacia y de Materia Médica, fundadas en el Establecimiento de Ciencias Médicas (1833). En esos espacios se buscó institucionalizar los saberes y las prácticas modernas relacionadas con la disciplina. En este trabajo se revisa la primera experiencia académica de la comunidad farmacéutica en su nuevo espacio de instrucción, a partir de los expedientes de los estudiantes inscritos en el Establecimiento de Ciencias Médicas de 1833, año de su fundación, a 1865, cuando se inscribió la última generación. La información de los 163 expedientes ilustra las transformaciones ocurridas en el ámbito farmacéutico luego de la reestructuración de su entorno profesional. El lector notará la diversa normatividad que pretendió regular el ingreso de los farmacéuticos a la vida académica de la que hasta entonces estaban excluidos y verá cómo entre los primeros inscritos al Establecimiento de Ciencias Médicas dicha normatividad fue transgredida para adaptarse a las formas ya conocidas por estudiantes y profesores. Progresivamente, la instrucción de tipo gremial sería desplazada por la institucional, al desdeñarse los años de práctica en las boticas, de manera que las formas gremiales de enseñanza se fueron transformando para hacer del farmacéutico un personaje de instrucción institucional.

History of French Pharmaceutical Education from 16th Century up to the Present􁴷Study on Japanese Pharmaceutical Education : Comparison between Japan and France - Pharmaceutical Education System.

After the long isolation in the Edo era, the new Meiji government tried to import science and culture from western countries. In the field of medical science, Kanpo, Chinese medicine, was abolished and western medicine was introduced in Japan. A medical system was established in 1874, but the division of prescribing medicines and dispensing them had not been introduced yet, and this situation prevented the increase in newborn pharmacists and solid pharmaceutical education for a long time. However, when the division of prescribing and dispensing medicines started in the late 1980s, the demand for pharmacists increased and a six-year pharmaceutical education system was introduced in 2006. The core curriculum that was established about 10 years ago had many problems, but the system was revised in 2013. The goal of the efforts is to improve the situation regarding the quality, quantity and contents of clinical pharmaceutical education for the new generation of pharmacists to come over the next 10 years. It is important to look at the pharmaceutical education of Japan in light of that of France, where the division of prescribing and dispensing medicine, and the pharmacy itself had been established in medieval times, focusing on the history of the educational system and requirements for pharmacists.

[Nicolas Lémery, student apothecary in Montpellier (1668-1671)].

The stay of Lémery in Montpellier as a companion-apothecary from 1668 until 1671 was attested, especially by his registration to the book of rolls. What he has done there is rather a matter of the oral tradition. But the atmosphere of rivalry and fuss between the followers of the Catholicism and those of the Protestantism was tangible through the trials, the rulings or the namings. Even unsaid things, for example in the books of chemistry published then, tell a lot on the atmosphere of the city during the three years of the stay of Lémery in Montpellier.

La Escuela de Farmacia en el contexto universitario cubano de enero de 1934 a marzo de 1937 / School of Pharmacy in the Cuban universitary context from January 1934 to March 1937

Se presentan los principales aspectos relativos al desempeño de la Escuela de Farmacia de la Universidad de La Habana desde enero de 1934 hasta marzo de 1937. Se destaca el diseño de un ambicioso plan de estudios, que no se pudo evaluar debidamente para su posible aplicación, a causa de la política represiva de los gobiernos de turno que impidió el desarrollo de las actividades académicas y docentes en la Universidad durante dos años. Asimismo se describe el proceso organización del curso extraordinario 1936-1937 bajo la dirección de las autoridades de la de nuevo independiente Facultad de Farmacia(AU)

The main aspects related to the performance of the School of Pharmacy of the University of Havana from January 1934 to March 1937 were presented in this article. The design of an ambitious curriculum was stressed, which could not be duly evaluated for its possible implementation as a result of the repressive policy of the governments in power that hindered the development of the academic activities in the university during two years. The article also described the process of organization of the extraordinary course 1936-1937 under the leadership of the authorities of the once again independent School of Pharmacy(AU)